Ground Water in India

Ground Water in India

Introduction:

1. Water seeps through rocks and soil and is stored below the ground.
2. The rocks in which ground water is stored are called aquifers made up of gravel, sand, sandstone or limestone. 
3. Water moves through these rocks because they have large connected spaces that make them permeable. 
4. The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone. 
5. The depth from the surface at which ground water is found is called the water table. 
6. The water table can be a foot below the ground or a few hundred meters deep. 
7. Heavy rains can cause the water table to rise and continuous extraction of ground water can cause the level to fall. 

Figure illustrates the major definitions used in the context of groundwater. 

The underground (hydrogeological) setting of ground water defines the potential of this resource and its vulnerability to irreversible degradation. This setting in India can be divided into following categories, which are described below:

1. Hard-rock aquifers of peninsular India:

• These aquifers represent around 65% of India’s overall aquifer surface area. 
• Most of them are found in central peninsular India, where land is typically underlain by hard-rock formations. 
• These rocks give rise to a complex and extensive low-storage aquifer system, where in the water level tends to drop very rapidly once the water table falls by more than 2-6 meters. 
• Additionally, these aquifers have poor permeability which limits their recharge through rainfall. 
• This implies that water in these aquifers is non- replenishable and will eventually dry out due to continuous usage. 

2. Alluvial aquifers of the Indo-Gangetic plains:

• These aquifers are found in the Gangetic and Indus plains in Northern India.
• They have significant storage spaces, and hence are a valuable source of fresh water supply. However, due to excessive ground water extraction and low recharge rates, these aquifers are at the risk of irreversible overexploitation. 

Ground water extraction and use:

• Experts believe that India is fast moving towards a crisis of ground water overuse and contamination.
• Ground water overuse or overexploitation is defined as a situation in which, over a period of time, average extraction rate from aquifers is greater than the average recharge rate.
• In India, the availability of surface water is greater than ground water. However, owing to the decentralised availability of groundwater, it is easily accessible and forms the largest share of India’s
• agriculture and drinking water supply. 
• 89% of ground water extracted is used in the irrigation sector, making it the highest category user in the country.
• This is followed by ground water for domestic use which is 9% of the extracted groundwater. Industrial use of ground water is 2%. 
• 50% of urban water requirements and 85% of rural domestic water requirements are also fulfilled by ground water.

Irrigation through ground water:

• Wells, including dug wells, shallow tube-wells and deep tube wells provide about 61.6% of water for irrigation, followed by canals with 24.5%.
• Over the years, there has been a decrease in surface water use and a continuous increase in ground water utilisation for irrigation. 
• The dependence of irrigation on ground water increased with the onset of the Green Revolution, which depended on intensive use of inputs such as water and fertilizers to boost farm production.
• Incentives such as credit for irrigation equipment and subsidies for electricity supply have further worsened the situation.
•  Low power tariffs has led to excessive water usage, leading to a sharp fall in water tables.

Legislative and Policy Framework 

The Easement Act, 1882 

• Provides every landowner with the right to collect and dispose, within his own limits, all water under the land and on the surface. 
• Difficult to regulate extraction of ground water. 
• Gives landowners significant power over ground water. 
• Excludes landless ground water users from its purview. 

The Model Bills and National Water Policy

• Address the governance of ground water under the public trust doctrine. 
• Public trust doctrine ensures that resources meant for public use cannot be converted into private ownership.
• Government being the trustee has the responsibility to protect and preserve this natural resource for and on behalf of the beneficiaries. 
• Every person has the fundamental right to be provided water of acceptable quality. 
• Fundamental right to water has been evolved by the Supreme Court and various High Courts of the country as part of ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Constitution. Courts have delivered verdicts on concerns such as access to drinking water and on the right to safe drinking water as a fundamental right.
• Prioritises needs of rural and urban households
• Specifies other primary and secondary uses. Primary uses include water for agriculture, non-agriculture based livelihoods and municipal water supply and secondary use includes water for commercial activities. 
• Implements the principle of subsidiarity which involves giving communities the power to regulate groundwater at the aquifer level. For example, an aquifer situated entirely within a village will be under the direct control of the Gram Panchayat. 
• So far, 11 states and four union territories (UTs) have adopted and implemented ground water legislation. 
• These are: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, West Bengal, Telangana, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, Puducherry, Chandigarh and Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
• Further, the Central Ground Water Authority issued advisory to Chief Secretaries of all states and UTs to take necessary measures for adopting rainwater harvesting in all government buildings. So far, 30 states and UTs have made rain water harvesting mand

Plachimada Coca-Cola Case 

The Plachimada panchayat in Palakkad district of Kerala granted a license to the Coca-Cola Company in March 2000 to use groundwater for the production of its beverages. However, in 2003, the panchayat ordered the closure of the plant as it caused lowering of the water table and deterioration of the water quality. This order was challenged by the company before the High Court of Kerala. The issue is the conflict in the right of a landowner to extract groundwater and the power of the panchayat to regulate the use of groundwater by private individuals. The High Court observed that even without groundwater regulation, the existing legal position was that groundwater is a public trust and the state has a duty to protect it against excessive exploitation. Additionally, it observed that groundwater exploitation by landowners can result in negative environmental consequences. However, on appeal, the two Judge Bench of the High Court asserted the primacy of landowner’s control over groundwater in the absence of a specific law prohibiting extraction. The case is now pending in the Supreme Court. 

Institutional Framework  

1. Central Water Commission: Initiating and coordinating schemes for the conservation and utilisation of water resources in the country in collaboration with state governments; and monitoring water quality 
2. Central Ground Water Board: Developing and disseminating technology related to sustainable use of ground water; monitoring and implementing policies for the sustainable management of ground water resources; estimating ground water resources 
3. Central Ground Water Authority: Constituted under Section 3(3) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate and control development and management of ground water resources; can resort to penal actions and issue necessary regulatory directives 
4. Central Pollution Control Board: Implementation of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 which seeks to restore water quality

Quality of ground water 

• The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India in its Performance Audit of Water Pollution in India, 2011-12 observed that despite increasing pollution of ground water sources and presence of contaminants like arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, salinity, etc., no programme at the central or state level is being implemented for control of pollution and restoration of groundwater. Additionally, the Central Pollution Control Board and the CGWB do not carry out real-time monitoring of water pollution in rivers, lakes and ground water sources. The CAG has made the following recommendations with regard to the prevention and control of pollution of groundwater: 
• The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change needs to establish enforceable water quality standards for lakes, rivers and ground water to help protect ecosystem and human health, 
• Penalties need to be levied for violations of water quality standards, and 
• States need to take measures for source control of pollutants through sewage and agriculture runoff entering water bodies in projects for conservation and restoration of lakes 

Local management of ground water 

• The phenomena of local water users successfully managing their water resources has been observed in only a few areas. The Planning Commission recommended that local planners take the following steps while planning for ground water management:
• Determining the relationship between surface hydrological units such as watershed or river basins, and hydrological units below the ground such as aquifers,
• Identification of ground water recharge areas,
• Maintaining ground water balance at the level of the village or the watershed, and 
• Creating regulatory options at the community level such as panchayat. Examples of activities that could be regulated at the local level include drilling depth, distance between wells, cropping patterns to ensure sustainability of aquifers and participatory ground water management.