Timeline of Indian History and short notes (pdf file)

Timeline of Indian History and short notes (pdf file)

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Timeline of Indian History and short notes (pdf file)

Ancient Indian Cities

Harappa

• The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most remarkable structure found at Harappa. 
• So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been found. 
• A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of Jainism Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain 
• At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded one-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats. 

Mohenjodaro 

• In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the dead’.
• It is the largest of all Indus cities 
• The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth). Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site
• Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes.
• Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick
• The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles. 
• The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth has been discovered from here
• There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure
• Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found The workmen or poor sections Of the society perhaps used these cottages.
• Abronzedancinggirl,steatitestatueof a priest and a seal bearing Pashupati have been found here
• It is important to remember that Mohenjodaro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain
• Excavation reveals that the city was flooded More than seven times

Kalibangan 

• Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.
• Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro 
• There is evidence of mud-brick fortification
• Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period.
• Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice
• The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub

Chanhudaro 

• Only Indus city without a citadel.
• Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase
• A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.
• Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen. Archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shops
• The city was twice destroyed by inundations.Here more extensive but indirect evidenceof super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen Banwali 
• Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan.
• Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found here.
• Here we find large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard. 

Surkotada 

• Excavations reveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
• It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been round.

Kot Diji 

• Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases found. 
• According to excavations, the city was probably destroyed due to fire
• Wheel made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
• Five figurines of Mother Goddess discovered

Ropar 

• The excavations have yielded five-fold sequence of cultures — Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
• The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting
• One example of rectangular mudbrick ‘chamber was noticed.

Dholavira 

• It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana
• The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.
• There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other 
• officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.

Lothal 

• Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.
• Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad.
• Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found
• A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here

Non-cooperation- Khilafat Movement

Background and Causes:

Mahatma Gandhi led his non-violent nationalist movement “satyagraha”, as a protest against government repression such as theRowlatt Act of 1919, and the Jalian Wallah Bagh Massacre of April 1919. To enlist Muslim support in his movement, Gandhi supported the Khilafat cause and became a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.

At the Nagpur Session (1920) of the Indian national congress (INC) Gandhi linked the issue of Swaraj (Self-Government) with the Khilafat demands and adopted the non-cooperation plan to attain the twin objectives. So the non-cooperation movement – Khilafat movement began in January 1921 and various social groups became part of this movement with different and varying aspirations of Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

It Began in January 1921 and ended in February 1922 with the chauri chaura incident.

What was the aim of Non-cooperation movement?

It aimed to resist British occupation of India through non-violent means.

Who all were the participants?

Various social groups participated in the movement with its own aspiration and views.  Students, teachers, lawyers, headmasters, traders, merchants etc. in towns and Peasants and tribals in the villages came together with their own views of swaraj.

What were the activities involved in Non-cooperation Movement?

Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth bunt. Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.

Students left government schools and colleges, teachers and head masters resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices. Council elections were boycotted in provinces.

 In the countryside the struggles of peasants and tribals came under the label of non co-operation movement.

In Awadh, peasants led by Baba Ramachandra were struggling for reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, social boycott of oppressive landlords.

By October 1920, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramachandra and few others.

When the non cooperation movement began, the peasant movement developed under its label but the movement was somewhat violent – houses of merchants and landlords were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.

Tribal peasants had somewhat other views on the idea of swaraj. Tribal peasants were prohibited from entering forest areas which affected their livelihood.

When the government began forcing them to do begar for road building, the tribal peasants in Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradhesh revolted under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed to have a variety of supernatural powers. Raju talked of the greatness of Gandhi and persuaded people to wear khadhi and give up drinking.  But he believed India could be liberated only through violence. They attacked police stations and attempted to kill British officials. He Carried on guerilla warfare. Raju was captured and executed in 1924.

Why was Non-cooperation movement ended?

 Chauri Chaura is a town near Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, known most for an event in February 1922 during the British Raj when a police station) was set on fire by a mob of angry citizens, killing 23 policemen inside. Due to this incident mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the non-cooperation movement.

Related Posts:

Main Recommendations of Punchhi Commission

Amendment process under Indian Constitution

Punchhi Commission

Motions in Indian Parliament

Writs in Indian Constitution

Non-cooperation- Khilafat Movement

Himalayan River System

NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

Centre State Relations

The Drain of Wealth Theory

Relates Topics:

Indian Polity

Central Government Schemes and Plans

Science and Technology

Health and Diseases

Current Affairs

International Affairs

Environment and Bio-Diversity

India and World History

Geography

The Drain of Wealth Theory

The Drain of Wealth theory was systemically initiated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867 and further analysed and developed by R.P. Dutt, M.G Ranade etc. 

The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to England for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian resources- revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India but for its utilization in Britain. If  these resources been utilised within India then they could have been invested and the income of the people would have increased. Ranade opined that one-third of India’s national income was being drained away-in one form or the other. 

According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of drain can be identified:

1. Home charges refer to the interest on public debt raised in England at comparatively higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the Secretary of State on behalf of India; Annuities on account of railway and irrigation works; Indian office expences including pensions to retired officials who had worked in India or England, pensions to army and navals etc.
2. Remittances to England by Europeans to their families.
3. Remittances for purchase of British Goods for consumption of British Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in India.
4. Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

Economic impact of Britishers on 

AGRICULTURE:

Though commercialization of agriculture helped in generating marketable surplus, it benefitted only few farmers and commercial interest. Rather, for majority of farmers it created the problem of famines by destroying the self sufficiency on the part of villages. Problem of food shortage was felt. This introduced an element of instability in agriculture. There was a huge growth in agricultural debt due to presence of MAhalwari, Ryotwari, Permanent Settlement Systems for Land revenue collection.

INDUSTRIES:

Lop sided pattern of industrial development occurred. This effect was reflected in pattern of industrial employment and concentration of industries in few cities and towns, and was caused mainly by colonial character of our country. The composition of industrial output showed the dominance of consumer goods over producers and capital goods. Decline of village handicrafts and slow growth of modern industries affected the agriculture sector of economy.

TAXATION SYSTEM:

Colonial rule brought a major change in the taxation environment from revenue taxes to property taxes resulting in mass impoverishment and destitution of the great majority of farmers. It also created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonizers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardized weights and measures, capital markets, a well-developed system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, and a common-law, adversarial legal system.

TRADE:

In the trade sector India was turned into a market for British manufactured goods and supplier of raw materials to Britain, due to unequal tariff policy, biased stores policy, etc.

Related Posts:

Main Recommendations of Punchhi Commission

Amendment process under Indian Constitution

Punchhi Commission

Motions in Indian Parliament

Writs in Indian Constitution

Non-cooperation- Khilafat Movement

Himalayan River System

NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

Centre State Relations

The Drain of Wealth Theory

Relates Topics:

Indian Polity

Central Government Schemes and Plans

Science and Technology

Health and Diseases

Current Affairs

International Affairs

Environment and Bio-Diversity

India and World History

Geography

Surat Split 1907

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

At the Surat Session in 1907, congress leaders split into two groups - moderates and extremists. Rift between these two sections became apparent at the Banaras Session (1905) when some nationalist led by Tilak denounced the method of the moderates and suggested passive resistance. They also advocated boycott of British goods and government institutions. At the end of this session, Lokmanya Tilak and his followers held a separate conference and announced the formation of the Extremist Party. However they decided to work as a part of the Indian National Congress.

In 1906, at Calcutta Session the rift between Moderators and Extremists further widened. Both the groups put their candidates for president ship but Dadabhai Naroji was accepted as a compromise candidate by both of groups. The Extremists group also succeeded in getting a resolution which emphasised the principle of swadeshi, boycott and national education.

But Moderators did not accept what had happened at the Calcutta session in 1906 and were determined to undo the same at the Surat Session in 1907. Extremists were also equally determined to see that the Moderates where not able to have their way. In Surat Extremists tried to push the candidature of Lala Lajpat Rai for President-ship of congress and Moderates Dr. Ras Behari Ghosh to be the President. The situation was saved by Lala Lajpat Rai and stepping down and Dr. Ras Behari Ghosh became the President. Real trouble started when the moderates tried to repudiate the resolution on boycott, swadeshi and national education which has been adopted in 1906. This was not acceptable to the extremists. As a result open clashes took place and session was suspended thereafter Moderates held a separate convention from which the extremists were excluded this marked a complete split in the Congress.

The division was further cemented in 1908 when the Indian National Congress at the madras session made a change in its constitution. It provided that the Congress delegates were not to be elected only by the congress committee and associations affiliated to the Congress. Net result of this change was that the Extremists were excluded from the Congress. Tilak and his followers remained outside the Indian National Congress till 1915 when a compromise was arrived at. 

The Surat Split was a turning point in history of Nationalist Movement in India. It meant a victory of the Extremists over the Moderates it also marked a change in the policy and attitude of the Government towards the nationalist moderates to the government side. The Minto-Morley Reform of 1909 can be said to be the direct outcome of the Surat Split. The split also greatly weaken both the parties. The Extremists were hounded by official repression and liberals were abandoned by their own people.

Second Battle of Panipat

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

On 24th January 1556 AD Mughal ruler Humayun slipped while climbing down the steps of his library and fell to his death. His son Akbar was only thirteen years old when he ascended the throne. At the time of Akbar's accession to the throne, the Mughal rule was confined to Kabul, Kandhahar, and parts of Punjab and Delhi. Akbar was then campaigning in Punjab with his chief minister Bairam Khan. On February 14, 1556, in a garden at Kalanaur, Akbar was enthroned as emperor. Hemu (Hemchandra) was a military chief of the Afghan King Muhammad Adil Shah who had established himself at Chunar and was seeking to expel the Mughals from India. Taking advantage of Humayun's death, Hemu marched to Agra and Delhi in October and occupied it without difficulty, and became the ruler under the title 'Raja Vikramaditya'.

To counter this, Bairam Khan (Akbar's guardian) marched towards Delhi. On November 5 both the armies met at Panipat. Hemu with a large army including 1,500 war elephants had initial success. There was a pitched battle and Hemu was on a winning spree when a stray arrow struck him in the eye. He fell unconscious. As in many other battles, the loss of the leader caused panic among the troops and turned the tide of the battle. The Mughals won the battle. Shah Quli Khan captured the Hawai elephant with its prize occupant, and took it directly to Akbar. Hemu was brought unconscious before Bairam and Akbar. Bairam pleaded Akbar to perform the holy duty of slaying the infidel and earn the Islamic holy title of 'Ghazi'. Among much self-congratulation Akbar then severed the head of unconscious Hemu with his saber.

Some historians claim that Akbar did not kill Hemu himself, but just touched the infidel's head with his sword and his associates finished the gory 'holy' work. After the battle Hemu's head was sent to Kabul as a sign of victory to the ladies of Humayun's harem, and Hemu's torso was sent to Delhi for exposure on a gibbet. Iskandar Khan chased the Hemu's fleeing army and captured 1500 elephants and a large contingent. Hemu's wife escaped from Delhi with the treasure and Pir Mohammad Khan's troops chased her caravan without success. There was a great slaughter of those who were captured and in keeping with the custom of his ancestors, Akbar had a victory pillar built with their heads. This battle, known as Second Battle of Panipat was an epoch-making event in the history of India as it resulted in re-establishment of the Mughal empire in India.

First Battle of Panipat

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

The first Battle of Panipat gave a death blow to the Lodhi empire and marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate's rule in India. It led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Mongol prince Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, known as Babur, had promised to help Daulat Khan Lodhi, Governor of Lahore, to fight the Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodhi in 1523 and made many raids into Punjab. Babur, after occupying the whole of Panjab by 1525 AD, marched towards Delhi. In November 1525 he set out to meet the Sultan of Delhi. Passage of Indus took place on 15th December. Babur had about 12,000 soldiers. Crossing Sutluj at Roper and reached Ambala without meeting any resistance. On April 1st Babur reached Panipat. It was barren wasteland dry and naked with few thorny bushes. Rumors came that Sultan was coming with an army of 100,000 and 1000 war elephants. The Afghan Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi advanced from Delhi to meet the invader. Babur had a strong artillery which was effectively pressed into service.

The battle started at six in the morning. Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi advanced rapidly . At about 400 yards Babur's Cannons opened fire, noise and smoke from the artillery terrified the Afghans and the attack lost momentum. Seizing the movement Babur sent out his flanking columns to envelop the Sultan's army. Here the Afghans met for the first time the real weapon of Mongols 'Turko-Mongol Bow'. Its superiority lay in the fact that it was the weapon of the nobles, of the finest warriors. Such a bow in the hands of a Mongol warrior would shoot three times as rapidly as musket and could kill at 200 yards.

Attacked from 3 sides the Afghans jammed into each other. Elephants hearing noise of cannon at close range ran wildly out of control. Ibrahim Lodhi and about 6000 of his troops were involved in actual fighting. Most of his army stretching behind up to a mile never saw action. Battle ended in about 3 hours with the death of Ibrahim Lodhi who was at forefront.

And in place where fighting had been the fiercest, among the heap of Mongols slain of his sword, lay the vain but courageous Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi. His head was cut off and taken to Babur. Ibrahim Lodhi's tomb is still present in Panipat. When afghans fled they left 20,000 dead and wounded. Losses to Babur's army were heavy 4000 of his troops were killed or wounded. Had Sultan Ibrahim survived another hour of fighting he would have won, as Babur had no reserves and his troops were rapidly tiring in Indian mid-day sun. Babur observes in his autobiography, "The mighty army of Delhi was laid in the dust in the course of half a day." In the words of Rushbrook Williams, "If there was one single material factor, which more than any other conduced to his ultimate triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery." The elephants trampled their own soldiers after being frightened away by the explosion of gunpowder.

Two weeks later the victorious Babur entered Agra where he was presented with the famous diamond 'Koh-i-noor'. Babur celebrated his victory in a lavish manner and occupied Delhi and Agra.

Reorganisation of States in India

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

After independence, the demand for the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis was raised from different regions. The Constitution Assembly appointed S. K. Dhar Commission in Nov. 1947 to study the issue of reorganisation of States on linguistic basis. The commission in its report , submitted in 1948, recommended against the organisation of states purely on basis. Instead, the commission suggested the following criteria along with language-

1. Geographical contiguity

2. Financial self-reliance

3. Administrative viability

4. Potential for development

The Congress, in its Jaipur session in 1948, appointed a three member committee to consider the recommendations of Dhar Commission. The Committee is popularly known as JVP Committee after the name of its three members – Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitarammaiah. The committee rejected language as the basis of reorganisation of states. It suggested that the security, unity and economic prosperity of the nation as the criteria of reorganisation. The Congress Working Committee accepted its recommendation in 1949, but the demand for linguistic reorganisation of States persisted in southern states particularly in Telgu speaking areas. As the agitation took a violent turn in Telgu speaking area, the Congress conceded the reorganisation of Telgu speaking area in the State of Andhra Pradesh in 1953.

To make an exhaustive study of the problem, the Government of India setup State Reorganisation Commission in 1953 which was headed by Fazal Ali. The other members of the commission were Hriday Nath Kunzru and K M Panikkar. The commission, in its report submitted in 1955, accepted the language as the basis of reorganisation of the States. It suggested the reorganisation of 27 states of various categories into 16 states and 3 union territories. The State Reorganisation Act, 1956 was passed by parliament to give effect to the recommendations of the commission.

Bangladesh: Background

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh, with an area of 147570 sq. km. and population of 16.2 crore (2009) is encircled from three sides (north, west, and east) by India. The common border between India and Bangladesh is 4000 km out of which wire fencing has been undertaken in 3300 km long boundary line. In its south boarder lies the Bay of Bangal and it shares south-east boundary with Myanmar.

Bangladesh, earlier called East Pakistan, was separated from Pakistan and became independent in 1971 after 9 months long liberation war in which India played a major part. In 1972 its founder leader Mujib-ur-Rehman signed treaty of friendship and peace with India which was assumed to be the corner stone of Indo-Bangladesh relations.

Mujib-ur-Rehman is called the father of Bangladesh. He was killed in a military coup in 1975 and was succeeded by Military Ruler Zia-ur-Rehman, who was also killed in 1981 and H.M. Ersad became the President of Bangladesh. Democracy was restored in Bangladesh in 1991. Thus from 1975 to 1991, Bangladesh was under military rule.

At present, there are three national parties in Bangladesh. First Awami League led by Sheikh Hasina Wajed, the daughter of Mujib-ur-Rehman. Second Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) led by Khaleda Zia, the widow of Zia-ur-Rehman, who was killed in 1981. Third party of smaller following is Jatiya Party led by H.M. Ersad, who presently supports the Awami League Government in Bangladesh.

After restoration of multiparty democracy and adoption of parliamentary form of government in 1991, Bangladesh Nationalist Party gained power in 1991 election. However, Awami League came to power in 1996 election. In parliamentary election of 2001, BNP again wrested political power from Awami League. The next election were scheduled in Jan-2007, were postponed indefinitely following the widespread protest and a caretaker government was appointed to administer the new general election. During this period the country suffered from extensive corruption, disorder and political violence. The emergency was declared in Jan-2007 and the army backed caretaker government of Fakruddin Ahmed aimed to prepare new voter list and crackdown on corruption. The next election were held in Dec 2008, and Awami League secured 2/3 majority as it won 230 seats out of total 300 seats in parliament.

Both Indo-Bangladesh relation and foreign policy of Bangladesh in general are deeply influenced by the domestic politics of that country. The Awami League Party is known for its democratic and secular credential and follows a policy of friendly relations with India. Whereas BNP dominated by fundamentalist and conservative element, is known for its anti-India stance. It accuses India of following hegemonistic policy with small neighbours.

The BNP government has been instrumental in developing warm ties with China particularly in the last decade. Between 2006 and 07, trade between China and Bangladesh rose by 28.5% and there have been agreements between the two countries to grant various Bangladesh commodities tariff free access to Chinese market. Cooperation the military of Bangladesh and Chinese army is also increasing with joint military agreements signed between the two countries. China’s growing influence on Bangladesh is cause of worry for India.

The most contentious between India and Bangladesh have been the sharing of Ganga water, repatriation of Chakma refugees, transfer of Teen Bigha corridor to Bangladesh , safe sanctuaries in Bangladesh for insurgent groups of Assam other north-eastern Indian state, transit facility to India through Bangladesh to ensure supply to north-eastern parts of India and more recently activities of Bangladesh based terrorist groups particularly Harkat-ul-Jihadal-Islam (HUJI).

The problem of Ganga water sharing arose in 1975 when India constructed Farakka Dam on the Ganga River to increase the supply of water for maintaining navigability of Hoogly river. With many ups and downs the two countries signed Ganga Water Sharing Agreement in 1996, which would guide the water sharing between the two countries for next 30 years. However, the sharing of water of other tributaries of Ganga between the two countries still remains.

The Teen Bigha corridor is a small of Indian Territory which joins Bangladeshi enclave of Dahagram and Angorpota. Agreements for the use of this corridor by Bangladesh were signed in 1972 and 1982. Following the Indian Supreme Court judgment, the Teen Bigha corridor was given to Bangladesh on perpetual lease, without any rent in 1992. However, this perpetual lease provided for the retention of Indian sovereignty over Teen Bigha with free movement of Indian Citizens living one either side of the corridor.

Both countries signed Chakma Hill track agreement in 1997 which pave the way for the repatriation of more than 15,000 Chakma refugees living in Tripura. The repatriation of these refugees is almost complete. To check the further infiltration of Bangladeshi refugees, the government of India has decided to put barbed wire fencing along the 3300 km border between the two countries. Bangladesh resents the fencing of the border. As a goodwill gesture, Kolkata-Dhaka bus service was also initiated in 1999. More recently Bangladesh has handed over some India insurgent leaders, notably Arbind Raj Khova, the chief of ULFA to India in Dec 2009. It should be noted that insurgent groups find safe heaven in Bangladesh and carry out their anti-India activities from Bangladesh territory.

Bangladesh is a member of Commonwealth of Nation, SAARC, BIMSTEC, and the D-8 Group of countries. As per the World Bank Report of 2005 Bangladesh has made significant progress in human development, illiteracy, gender parity etc.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

From: IAS (Indian Administrative Service Aspirant's blog)

Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India; was born on 3rd Dec, 1884. He lived 79 successful years with great zeal, strengthening the foundation of our country, in a nice way. He served the nation for a long time with his extremely strong leadership.  The great leader contributed a lot to motivate the Indian citizens to attain freedom and live the life with full liberty. That’s why; he was admired by the people as the first president of India after freedom. He was proved as an intelligent motivator for young people and proved as a role model for them, even after being belonged to a small village Ziradei in Siwan, Bihar.

Lifetime achievements-

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad contributed for the progress of India up to the great extent. He served his motherland so dearly that he dedicated all his life for the holy service of the country. Being a good leader, he was selected for various posts in the Indian cabinet. His main achievements in the series are as follows:-
• He was chosen as the first president of India; at the age of 63 years.
• Being the president of the constituent assembly, he employed his intelligent views and ideas full of farsightedness in order to build a strong constitution for the country.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president of congress, the most popular national party during the year of 1939 and 1943.
• One of the interesting facts about the political carrier of Dr. Prasad that he served as the cabinet minister in the first Indian government, after freedom.

Family and earlier life-

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was a very simple, honest and intelligent leader. Being the disciple of Gandhiji, he followed his rules such as non violence, honesty, truthfulness and became one of the crucial members of the freedom struggle.  His father, Mahadev Sahay and mother, Kamleshwari Devi brought him up with great love and care as he was the youngest child among his siblings. He was a scholar of Persian and Sanskrit language. His elder brother, Mahendra Prasad was admired by him a lot.

He was committed for the customs and riots of his community crucially, from his childhood only. He was taught Persian by a private maulavi, at the age of five years. His great intelligence and analyzing power made him the expert of Hindi and arithmetic. He was married to Rajvanshi Devi, at the age of 12 years.

Graduation and young life-

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was an extremely brilliant student. He was the topper student in the entrance examination of Calcutta University and achieved the scholarship of Rs. 30 per month, in the year of 1902. He went to presidency college of Calcutta where he got the chance of learning science under the great Indian scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose. Later, he selected arts as his subject instead of science and completed the study of MA. He became master of Law and initiated swadeshi movement by the inspiration of his brother mahendra Prasad. He became the member of the dawn society which was being run by satish Chandra mukherji and sister nivedita at the time.

Political career

Dr. Prasad came into contact with gandhiji during his arrival on the Indian national scene. He was highly influenced with the great personality and became dedicated for the freedom struggle after meeting ‘father of the nation ’. His disciplined life and dedication for the motherland inspired Prasad in a great way that he took part in salt satyagrah and got arrested by police in 1930. When the earthquake struck Bihar in 1934, he was in jail only. As he was released from jail after 2 days of the event, he started collecting fund and economic relief for the people who were suffering from destruction by the natural calamity. He became successful in collecting about 3.8 million Rs. in which the one third parts was contributed by the viceroy.

Just after this event, he was selected as the president of Indian national congress and leaded the Bombay session. From this point his political carrier caught speed and he became the president of the country. After serving the country for 12 years in this highly admirable stage, he was awarded Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of India. He died on 28th February, 1963, after retirement.

Literary contributions

• Satyagraha at Champaran (1922)
• India Divided (1946)
• Atmakatha (1946), his autobiography written during his 3-year prison term in Bankipur Jail
• Mahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminisences” (1949)
• Bapu ke Kadmon Mein (1954)
• Since Independence (published in 1960)

Important Places in ancient India

1. AIHOLE near Badami with rock cut and structural temples of Western Chalukya period, is favous for the temples of Vishnu, Ladkhan and Durga. It furnish examples of a well developed Deccan style of architecture. The other three styles of ancient India being Nagar Dravidian and Vesara. It is also famous for its inscription or Prasasti composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulkesin II. This prasasti mentions the defeat of Harsha by the Chalukya king, Pulkesin II, a r rare event of a Northern emperor or ruler being defeated by a ruler south of Narmada.

2. ACHICHHATRA identified with modern Ramnagar in Bareily district of U.P. was the capital of North Panchala in the first half of first millennium B.C. Exacavation grove that it had moats and ramparts around it, it has revealed terracottas of the Kushan period, and also remarkable siries of coins of second century A.D. Its importance lies in the fact that it was on the important ancient Indian northern trade route linking Taxila and Inidraprastha with Kanyakubaj and Sravasti, Rajgriha and Pataliputra indicating that trae could be one of the reasons for its prominence.

3. AJANTA near Aurangabad (Maharashtra), is famous for wonderful Buddist caves, and also paintings probably executed only b the Buddhist monks. Paintings of exceptional skill belong to the period between 2nd century B.C. and 7th Century A.D. One of the cave well depicts the reception of a Persian mission in the Chalukya court of Pulkasin II indicating cultural and commercial contacts with the Persian empire.

4. ANUPA in Narmada valley mentioned in the Nasik inscription (dated 115 A.D.) of Gautami Balasri, mother of the Satvahana ruler Sri Satakarni (Circa 72-95 A.D.) was conqured bythe latter from the sakas, and was a bone of contention for long between the Sakas and the Satvahanas. The sakas were responsible for driving the Satavahanas. Into the south -eastern and western direction. In other words, Anupa signifies the earlier homeland of the Satvahanas.

5. APARNTAKA (Aparanta), identified withk Konkan, i.e. North western region of the Deccan, was a bone of contention between the sakas and the Satavahanas and is mentioned in Nasik Inscription (dated circle 155 A.D.) of Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputa stakarni conquered it from theSakas. According to the Mahavamsa, the third Buddhist council deputed Great elder Dharamarakshita to do missionary work in Aparantaka region. Literacy evience locates the Abhiras in this region, who probably were responsible for identifying Lord Krishna as the diety of cowherd and milk-maids.

In matters relating to trade and commerce it was famous for the production of cotton textiles in ancient times and ated, as the hinterland for the ancient ports of Bharukachechha and Sopara.

6. ARIKAMEDU near Pondicherry, known to the periplus as podoka, wa port of call in Sangam Times (200 B.C.) on the route of Malaya and china. Recent excavation during which a veryrich treasure of Roman beads, glass and coins, and of Roman and south Indian Pottery were found have proved that it was once a prosperous settlement of Western trading people, including the Romans.

The favourable balance of Payments position ejoyed by India in its trade with Rome is amply revealed by the rich haul of Roman gold coins.

7. AYODHYA also known as A-yu-te or Abhur of Saketa on the river Sarya (Modern Ghaghra) in Faizabad district of U.P. was the earliest capital of the Kosala Janapade and was the seat of the epic hero, Rama. It is also known for its short Sanskrit inscription of king Dhandeva of Kosal (belonging probably to the first century B.C.) which refers to the conducting of two Asvamedha sacrifices by king Pushyamitra. From the economic view-point it was located on the important trade of Tamralipti-Rajagriha-Sravasti which passed via Ayodhya.

8. AMRAVATI near modern Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh), is famous for its stupa and as an art center flourishing under the Satavahanas and the pallavas. Second century works of art khow mastery of stone sculpture. Amravati bas-reliefs have the representation of ancient Indian vehicles – the boat or the ship or the cart, and of a foreign mission (like the Ajanta cave paintings) of marchants being received by a king. In ancient times is was an important center of trade, and ships from here sailed to Burma and Indonesia.

It is maintained by some scholars that a human figure, for the first time, that a marble stone relief was executed.

9. ASIKA (Probably on the left bankof the river Krishna), is mentioned in the Nasik inscription (dated circe 115 A.D.) of Gautami Balasri, it was conquered by the Satavahana rular Gautamiputra Satakarini (………) The latter fact reveals that Gautamiputra Satakarni gained a stronger hold of southern India which proved beneficial because of the continuing Saka pressure even after his victory against the Sakas. King Kharavela of Kalinga also made a claim of its conquest.

10. AVANTI (western Malva) one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C. with its capital at Ujjain; struggle dhard against Magadhan imperialism but in vain. According to Buddhist traditions, Asoka, the Mauryan ruler, served as the Viceroy of Avanti, while he was a prince.

Since Malwa region is important politically, and economically it became a bone of contention between the Sakas. And the Satavahanas, Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas in ancient India. It is through this region that the importanttrade routes from eastern and western Indian passed Via Ujjain to the important Western ports Bharukachchha (Broach) and Soparaka (Sopara).

11. ANGA one of the 16th Janapadas of 16th century B.C. Lay to the east of Magadha with Champa, near Bhagalpur, as its capital. Some of the Anga monarchas, like Brahmadatta, appear to have defeated their Magadha contemporaries. Subsequently, however, Magadha emerged supreme leading to the establishment of the first empire of ancient India. In other words, the conquest of Anga by Magadha was one of the stepping stones for the Magadhan Empire.

12. BARHUT in central Indian is famous for Buddhist Stupa and stone railings which replaced the wooden ones in the Sunga period. Barhut sculptures depict the visit of king Ajatasatru to the Buddha. Barhut along with Sanchi and Bodh-Gaya represent the first organized art activity of the Indian people as a whole. Furthermore, all these clearly indicate the transition of sculpture from wood to stone.

13. BARYGAZA OR BHARUKACHCHA (Broach) was the oldest and largest northern most entrepot on the mouth of the Narmada river in modern Maharashtra. It handled the bulk of the trade with western Asia (Jataka stories and the Periplus mention it). It was also one of the district head quarters of the Saka rulers. According to Jain traditions, it was the capital of the Saka empire. It was international trade that mode Barygaza important in ancient India.

14. BARBARICUM was an important port in the Indus delta, receiving Chinese furs and silks through Bacteria for export to the West. It added to the growing prosperity of India in the first century A.D.

15. BADAMI (MODERN NAME FOR VATAPI) in Bijapur district was founded by pulkesin I as an early capital of the Western Chalukyas. It as a hill-fort and an exquisite cave temple of lord Vishnu excavated during the rule of Manglesh, the Chalukya ruler. Huen-tsang visited it.

16. BODH-GAYA situated six miles south of Gaya in Bihar on the western bank of the Nilajan river, was the place where the Buddha attained enlightenement. It was part of the Magadha janapada.

17. BANAVASI (north kanara in Karnataka) also known as Vaijayanti, was the capital of the Kadambas who were defeated by the Chalukya king Kirtivarman during the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. According to the Ceylonese chronicles Ashoka sent a mission to Deccan with the Monk Rkshita who went as far as Banavasi.

18. BRAHMAGIRI in Chitaldurg district of Karnataka, is remarkable for its continuity of cultural heritage extending from Neolithic (stone-age culture) to megalithic (early historic culture-3rd century B.C. to Ist century B.C. with possible links with Mediter anean and Caucasian Megaliths) revealing ancestory worship and animism pointing to the practice of cist and pit burials. It is the site of one of the two minor rock edicts of Askoka. These edicts suggest the provability of Ashoka entering the Sangha as a full monk after two and a half years of his conversion to Buddhism.

19. BURZAHOM in Kashmir Valley near Srinagar, is associated with megalithic settlements (dating 2400 B.C.) where the people lived on a plateau in pits using tools and weapons of stone (axe) and bones. (The only other site which has yielded considerable bone implements is Chirand, 40 km. West of Patna on the northern bank of the Ganges and using coarse grey pottery. The information that we gather from the two places, recently discovered, throws light on the proto-histroy of India).

20. BAMIYAN an important Buddhist and Gandhara Art center in Afghanistan in the early Christian centuries, has tall rock-cut Buddha statues. The ancient trade route linking north western India with China passed through it. It was the capital of the Hunas in the 5th and the 6th centuries A.D.

21. BELUR with a group of Hoysala monuments including the famous Chennakesava temple (built around 1117 A.D.) represents an art which applies to stone the technique of the ivory worker or the goldsmith.

22. CHIDAMBARAM a town in south Arcot district in Tamilnadu is famous for its great Hindu Siva Temple dedicated to Nataraja, i.e. Siva in his aspects of cosmic dance. The Nataraja sculptures are esteemed as tehgreatest specimens of sculpture in the world. Also, Chidambaram bears evidence to the birth as well as the development of Shaivism to begin with insouthern Indian and its consequential spread to the whole of India.

23. CHEDI OR CHETI one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C. roughly corresponds to modern Bundelkhand and adjacent tracts. It lay near the Kanuna, its metropolis was suktimati to Sottihivatinagar.

24. CAAMPA the capital city of the Anga Janapada on the border of Bengal was of great commercial importance in ancient times; for it was a river port from which ships would sail down the Ganges and the coast the south India, returning with jewels and spices which were much in demand in the North. By Mauryan times, with the eastward expansion of Aryan culture, Tamralipti replaced in in importance. An interesting feature of this is the fact that a Hindu Kingdom with the same name came into existence in the mainland of South east Asia. Indeed it is difficult to say how exactly this name came to be transplanted in South-east Asia.

25. DASAPURA modern Mandasor in western Malwa, was disputed between the Sakas and the Satavahanas. Its famous Siva temple of the guild of Silk weavers, was built during the reign of kumar Gupta I (414 A.D.-455 A.D.) the institution that is responsible for building the Siva temple indicates the climax of Indian trading and commercial activities in ancient Indian. It also reveals that manufacture of silk was no longer the secret monopoly of China and it had taken roots in India by the 5th century A.D.

26. DEVAKA modern Dokak in Nowgong district in Assam, a frontier country which paid tribute to Samudragupta claiming the payment of tribute by Kamarupa goes along with Devaka. However, it is to be borne in mind that Harisena’s Prasasti is of doubtful historical validity. The one significant thing that is known is the fact that no ruler of the northern India could ever conquer the Assam region but instead Burma conquered it and it was wrenched from Burma by the British in 1829 by the Treaty of Yandavoo.

27. DEOGARH in Jhansi district of U.P. is famous for its Dasvatara Vishnu temple belonging to the Gupta period. The temple may be considered as most respresentative and well known example of the early sikhara style of temple architecture in example of the early sikhara style of temple architecture on the panels of its walls. Deogarh is one the temples with which began the temple architecture of India. In particular, the Shikhara is the unique feature of the northerntemples compared to those of southern Indian.

28. DWARAKA Legends associate this place toYadavas after the battle of Kurukshetra. According to mythology Dwaraka was destroyed by the huge tidal wave as per the forewarning of Lord Krishna. In very recent times Dr. S.R.Rao with the cooperation of the Department of Ocenography, did carry out under-sea explorations. Some artifacts including stone anchors have been found dating back to the Harappan period. The exploration is still continuing.

29. ELLORA With three distinct groups of rock-cut architecture associated with Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanical Hinduism, is famous for its temple of Kailash (Siva) “an entire temple complex completely hewn-out of the live rock in imitation of a distinctive structural form”. The temple ws built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (758-773 A.D.) and is one of the most magnificent examples of Dravida architecture with its four principal characteristic components, viz. Vimana, Mandapa, nandi mandapa and gopuram. The Ellora sculptures are famous for their liveliness.

30. ERAN Besnagar district (Madhya Pradesh) is famous on account of Eran Inscriptions dated 510 A.D. This inscription mentions the practice of Sati, first of its kind. It is also famous for its colossal board, the zoomorphic incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

31. ELEPHANTA beautiful little island off Bombay, with latest cavetemples in Ellora style was famous for their sculpture, especially the great Trimutti figure of Siva, emblem of the Maharashtar Govt. representing the highest plastic expression of the Hindu concept of divinity.

32. GANDHARA with Taxila and peshwar as two capitals, in earlier and later ancient periods was one of the 16 Janapadas (6th century B.C.) onthenorth-western frontier of India. Under the Kushans it become a popular center of Mahayana Buddhism and Gandhara art- Indian images both secular and religious (the Buddha and Lord Krishna) but in long floating garments, as is the tradition of early Greek sculpture. It was a meeting ground for several civilizations and mercantile communities belonging to different countries.

33. GORATHAGIRA A hill fortress on the modern Barabar hills in the Gaya district of Bihar, was attacked by King Kharavela of Kalinga in the 8th year of his reign. This fact is known from the Hathigumpha Inscription of king Kharavela.

34. GANGAIKOND-CHOLA-PURAM was capital city of the greatest Chola ruler Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 A.D.) who built it after the successful Chola military camaign upto the bank of the river Ganges in 1021-22. Currently the city lies inruins and its enormous tankshas dried up.

35. GIRNAR hill near Janagarh in Gujarat, where a Mauryan governor is said to have built an artificial lake, known as Sudarsana lake which Rudradaman, the Saka ruler renovated. Rudradaman’s Sanskrit Inscription was located here and it is the first Sanskrit inscription It had been a sacred place to the Jainas since remote times because Jain shrines are also located here.

36. HASTINAPURA aim district Meerut in U.P. (known as Asandivant) was the capital of the ancient tribe of the Kurus. Later the floods destroyed it. Recent excavations prove that the people of this region used iron by about 700 B.C. that is the Aryans had learnt the art of making iron which revolutionized the whole socio-economic pattern of Aryan communities. It was this fact that lay at the base of the Economic Revolution that India passed through between 1000 B.C. to 600 A.D. with far too many consequences like the emergence of an empire, various kinds of guilds, brisk trade both with in and with out the country and links with buth South-east Asia and the Roman empire.

37. HATHIGUPHA on Udaigir hill, three miles from Bhuvaneshwar in the puri district of Orissa, is famous for an inscription in post-ashokan character, engraved inside the elephant cave. It depicts the meteoric and dazzling carer of Jaina king Kharavela, the 3rd ruler of the Cate dynasty. It also refers to the building of an equeduct in Kalinga by one of the Nanda rulers of Pataliputra. The importance of this inscription lies in the fact that it is the first important sign-post in fixing the chronology of ancient India.

38. HAILBID is famous for Hoysalesvara temple (Hoysala period) designed and built by Kedoroja, the master-building of Narasimha I. The infinite wealth of sculpture over the exterior of this temple makes it one of the most remarkable monuments of the world. Known as Dwaramudra it was the capital of the Hoysalas.

39. INDRAPRASTHA identified by Jain scholars with the site around the enclosure of the Purana Oila (Delhi) one of the sites of painted Grey Ware (10th century B.C.) finda, was the legendry capital of the Pandava brothers of the epic Mahabharata, which they lost to the Kauravas having been defeated in the gambling match. After the second battle of Tarain (1192) Moh. Gauri appointed Outbuddin Aibak as his deputy at Indraprastha which became a base for Aibak’s successful operations against north Indian states.

40. KURA one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C., was in the neighbourhood of Delhi. Among its towns may be mentioned Indraprastha and Hastinapur. This place clearly brings home the truth to us that Mahabharata was not purely fictional story but some amount of historical evidence is embedded in the story. As a matter of fact, Vasudeve Krishna is now known as a historical personality as borne out by the writings of patanjali and other sources of evidence.

41. KAJANGALA in Raj mahal district in Eastern Bihar, where king Harsha (606-647 A.D.) held his court while campaigning in eastern India.The Chiense pilgrim Huen-Tsang first saw Harsha here.

42. KAPISA It is the region near Kabul, probably Kipin as referred to by Chineses writers. The presiding diety of the city according to Chiense writers was zeus. The Greek god. The gold and silver coins issued by the Greek kings have been discovered from this region in big numbers. The Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India. These coins testify to the growing trade links between India and Central Asia and China and also with the Roman world. Far more important is the fact that these coins testify to the gowing worship of Vasudeva-krishna or the Bhagavata cult which later repened as Vaishnavism.

43. KIPIN is identified with Kapisa or Kafirstan in Kashmir. It indicated the wide region know in earlier times as the Mahajanapada of Kamboja. It was ruled by the Sakas, the Kushans and the Hunas in succession. The name Kamboja reappears as the name of kamboja, an important of the mainland of South-East Asia.

44. KAMPILYA was the capital of southern Panchalas, one of the tribal communities of the Aryans. This fact proves that the Aryans, to begin with in India, lived as various tribes. The tribes were in constant war with eachother culminating in the emergence of the Magadha Empire.

45. KUSAMDHVALA (Patliputara) Gargi-Samhita alludes that in the 2nd century B.C. the Yavanas (Indo-Bacterians) having reduced Saketa, Panchala, and Mathura reached kusumdhvana. Demetrios, was, most probably, the Yavana leader. He was defeated or he retired withouth fighting.

46. KASI one of the 16 Janapadas of the 6th century B.C. with its capital of the same name. It was also called Varanasi (69). It greatly prospered under the rule of Brahmadatta.

47. KOSAL one of the 16 janapadas of the 6th century B.C. had three different capitals (Saketa, Ayodhya and Sravasti) in three different periods. It region roughly corresponded to modern oudh.

48. KUSINAGAR (Kusinara ?) moder Kasia, in Gorakhpur district in UP was a small town where the Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana. It was one of the two capitals of the Mall Janapada in pre-Buddhists times. It was visited by Ashoka and the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien.

49. KANYAKUBJA (Kanauj) on the bank of river Gangas in UP rose to prominence during the time of Mukhar is, Harsha and Gujara-Pratiharas. Under the pratiharas, Kanauj successfully resisted the Arabs. In the 9th century A.D. It was disputed among the Palas of Bengal, Prathiharas, and the Rashtrakutas. It was situated on a very important trade-route linking north-Western regions of India with Prayaga, Kasi, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Tamralipti.

50. KAUSAMBI identified with the villagesof Kosam near Allahabad was one of the earliest cities, so prominent that Anand, the Buddhist monk, though it important enough for a Buddha to die in. Recent excavation it here unearthed historically and culturally important terracotta figures. It was built in the shape of a trapezium and was the capital of the vastse Janapada. One of the Ashokan Pillars was located here. It was also an inscription of the Kushan monarch.

60. KARNA-SUVARNA : refers to the region of Bengal and some parts of Bihar and Orrisa, fuled by sasanka in the early 7th century A.D. Harsha conquered the region from him after 619 A.D.

61. KANHERI In Thana district near Bombay, has rock cut Chaitya shrines with elaborately decorated railings belonging to the third century A.D. One inscription of the last great ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. Yajnasri Satakarni is found here. Kanheri Buddhist Tank inscription makes mention of Matiemonial relationship between the Sakas and the Satavahanas. It was the chief center of Buddhism in Rashtrakuta times. Faint traces of the art of paintings may be traced in the caves of Kanheri.

62. KANCHI modern canjeevaram, south-west to Madras is reckoned among the seven sacred cities of the Hindus. It was an important center of Jaina culture in the first half of the first millennium A.D. It was one of the south Indian kingdoms conquered by Samudragupta. It was visited by Huen-Tsang. It rose to prominence in 7th century A.D. Under the Pallava king. It possesses the famous Kailashnath temple (built by Pallava King Narsimhavarman – II) and Vaikuntha perumalla (constructed sometime after the kailashnath). The Kailashnath temple is a landmark in the development of dravida temple style with its characteristic components-vimana, mandapa gopuram and an array of vimanas along the walls of the court, i.e. peristyle cells.

63. KAVERIPATTANAM known as Puhar, was the Chola capital and chief port in Sangam period (200 B.C.- 300 A.D.) with a large colongy of foreigners. It was an important trade center. Ships sailing from here to South-East Asia. A long poem on this Chola capital is the part of the famous Sangam work pattupattu (Ten Idylls).

64. KURUKSHETRA near Thaneswar, to the north of Delhi in Haryana, was the site of the great battle of Mahbharata. This battle fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, formed the basis of the story of the greatness of India epics the Mahabharata. It is in this great war that Krishna prached his gospel of the Gita, to the Pandava hero Arjuna who saw his own elders and kishmen arranged himself for the fith and then early decided to renounce and retire. Krishna gave him the message of disinterested perfomance of duty i.e. renunciation in action but no renunciation of action. That a great war ws fought between the cousin brothers – Kauravas and Pandavas is quite possible.

65. MANYAKHET (modern Malkhed in Hyderabad region) was the capital of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I in the 9th century A.D.

66. MAHABALIPURAM is today a tiny coastal village 65 kms. south of Madras. This port-city was founded by Pallava king Narasimhavarman in the 7th century A.D. Pallava kings created an architecture of their own which was to be the basis of all the styles of the south. In fact Mahabilipuram, the Pallava art with its monolithic temples (rathas) and rocks sculptured in the shapes of animals with a wonderfully broad and powerful naturalism, with whole cliffs worked in stone frescoes, immenspictures unparalleled at the time in all Indian in their order movement and lyrical value. The Descent of the Ganges, the unique masterpiece of Pallava art was surely one of the most remarkable compositions of all time (in which is portrayed the Ganges coming down to earth, with gods, animals men and all creation in adoration). The shore temple built by Rajasimha represents one of the earliest examples of structural temples. the Pallvava monuments at Mahabalipuram symbolize not only the transition from rock-architecture to structural stone temples but also significantly the completion of the “Aryanisation” of South India during the Pallava period.

67. MADHYAMIKA is identified with Nagari near Chitor in Rajasthan. Patanjali alludes toYavana (Indo-Bacterian) invasion of Madhyamika.

68. MUSHIKAS on the lower Indus with its capital at Alord. Was the greatest principality at the time of Alexander’s invasion. Its king mousikanas submitted to Alexander after brave resistance.

69. MATIPUR modern Mandawar in district Bijnor of UP was a center of Hinayana Buddhist studies in the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. Huen-Tsang stayed here for some time.

70. MADURAI popularly known as the city of festivals, was the seat of the 3rd Sangam and was till the 14th century the capital of the Pandyan kingdom which had sea-borne brade with Rome and Greece. It is famous for the Minakshi temple.

80. MACCHA or Matsaya, was one of the 16 janapads. The Matsyas ruled to the west of the Jamuna and south of the Kurus. Their capital was at Viratnagar (modern Bairrat near Jaipur).

81. MALLA was one of the 16 Janapadas of the16th century B.C. The territory of the Mallas was on the mountain slopes probably to the north of the vijjain confederation. They had to branches with their capitals at Kusinagar and Pawa. But in pre-Buddhist time the Mallas were a monarchy.

82. MUZIRIS modern canganors in Kerala at the mouth of the river Periyar, an important port in Sangam period (20 B.C. – 300 A.D.) abounded in ships with cargoes from Arabia and Roman world. Later literature speaks of Roman settlements and a temple was built here ni honour of Augustus.

83. NAGARJUNAKONDA is Krishna Velley, harboured a Neolithic community with stone-axe-culture and primitive mode of agriculture. With a few classical accidental looking sculptures in proves trade and culture contacts with the Roman world. Survival of a Buddhist stupa proves it to be a Buddhist center in early Christian centuries. The beginning of Hindu temple architecture in south India are best traced in the remains of the early brick temples of the Ikshavakus excavated here anticipating the Nagara, Dravida and Vasars styles.

84. NASIK (also known as Naiskya and Govardhan) is famous for exquisite rock-cut Buddhist temple (of the period 2nd BC – 1st A.D.) with an engraved iscription of Gautami Balsari recording the achievement of the Satavahanas ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni). A large board of silver coins bearing the name, the titles of Nahapana were discovered at Jogalthambi very close to the Nasik suggesting the defeat of the Saka ruler bythe Satavahana knig. It is also famous for the Chaitya and Vihar as pan-du-lonea.

85. PITHUNDA on the Godavari, was the capital of the Avapeople or the Avamukta which was conquered as Samudragupta.

86. PADMAVATI was Nag capital is Gwalior region. Its king Ganapati Naga was defeated by Samudragupta.

87. PRATISHTHANA (Paithan) at the mouth of the river godavri in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, was the capital of Satavahana kings. It was an important commercial mart linked with Sravasti.

88. PURUSHPURA (modern Peshawar) was the capital of Kanishka’s vast empire and the center of Gandhara art. It became the chief center of Buiddhist activity and studies with building of number of huge Chaityas and viharas and with one stupa. The Chiense pilgrims refer to a many storied relic-tower in which some relics of Buddha were enshrined. It is here that the icons of Buddha and other Hindu gods were first finely carved. In provided the meeting place of the marchants of India, China, central Asia, Persia, and the Roman world.

89. PATTADAKAL near Aihole Badami is famous for magnificentrock-cult and sculptures temples in Chalukya and Pallava style. The number of such temples is ten – four in the northern style and six in southern. Most famous of these temples is lokesvara temple (now called Virupaksha).

90. PANCHALA was one of the 16 janapadas of the 6th century B.C. Its area correspondent to modern Bundelkhand and the portion of the Central Doab. It had two divisions northern and southern, the Ganges forming the boundary line. Their capitals were Ahicchatra and Kampilya respectively. One of the early Panchalas kings, Durmukha, is credited with conquests in all directions.

91. PUSHKALAVATI i.e. the “city of lotuses’ in Afganisthan to the north of the river Kabul (modern Charasadda) in the district of Peshawar was conquered by Alexandar. It was the old capital of western Gandhara. A gold coin (belonging to the 2nd century B.C.) with the city goddess (Lakshmi) holding a lotus in her right hand and an appropriate Kharoshthi legend “Pakhalavati devata” had been discovered here pointing to the popularity of Indian goddess. It remained under the rule of the Indo-Greeks, the sakas and the Kushana. It was an important link in India’s trade relations with central Asia and China.

92. RAJAGRIHA moder Rajgir, near Patna in Bihar was and ancient capital of Magadha under Bimbisara and Ajatsatru. It was here that first Buddhist council was held after the death of Buddha. The cyclopean walls of the this old commercial town are among themost remarkable finds in India.

93. SAKALA modern Sialkot, capital of Menander, was the refuge of Buddhist monks. It was here, according to Buddhist tradition, that Pushyamitra Sungha declared to give an award of 199 dinars for the head of a Buddhist monk.

94. SANCHI :near Bhopal famous for a Buddhist stupa and for one of Ashoka’s Minor Pillar Edicts. Sanchi sculptures along with Bharhut Godh-Gaya represent the first organized art activity of the Indian People. There are reliefs of the Jatkas on the stone walls around the stupa. Sanchi revealed historically important inscription of the Satavahanas and the Gupta kings. Kakanodbota probably was the ancient name for Sanchi, which was inhabited by the tribal people Kakar, and was conquered by the Samudragupta.

95. SRAVASTI moder Saket-Mahet on the borders of the Gonda and the Bahraich districts of U.P. On the river Rapti – It was a famous center of trade in ancient times, from where three important trade routes emanated linking it with Rajagriha, Pratishthana, and Taxila. It was one of the early capitals of the Janapad of Kosal. Later, it served as the provincial headquarters of the Gupta kings. Fa-hien visited it.

96. SAKETA region around Ayodhya, was invaded by Yavanas (Indo-Bacterin) is attested to by Patanjali.

97. SARNATH near Varanasi, is the place where the Buddha delivered his frist sermon in the Deer park, this event being known as the “Turning of the Wheel of Law”. It is the site of the famous Ashokan Pillar of Polished sand-stone whose lion capital was adopted by the people of Free India as the state emblem. It was also the famous seat of Gupta sculpture. Gupta plastic art reached its perfection e.g. the seated Buddha in preaching posture.

98. SRAVANA-BELGOLA in Hasan district of Karnataka, is famous for the monolithic statue of Gometeswara- 85fit. High, erected in 980 A.D. by Chemundya Rai, the chief minister of the Ganga king Rachmal.

99. SOPARA port town known to the Periplus and ptolmey, carried most of the ancient Indian trade with foreign countries; gradually it began to lose its importance to Berygaza and Barharium- Ist century A.D. onwards. It ahs survived as a village 40 miles north of Bombay.

100. TOSALI (Dhauli) near Bhuaneshwar in Puri district of Orissa, was the seat of one of the Mauryan viceroyalties as well as one of the fourteen major rock edicts of Ashoka. The Tosali rock edict refers only to the conquered province.

101. TRIPURI now village near Jabalpur, was the capital of the Kalachuri dynasty. The Kalachuri kings became independent in 10th century A.D. In 1939, Tripuri had the distinction of being the venue of the 54th session of Indian National congress.

102. TAMRALIPTI Tamluk in the Midnapur district of Western Bengal was one of the most important port-towns of ancient India. Outlet to south-east Asia when there was trade boom.

103. TANJORE is famous for Rajarajeswava or Brihadeswara temple of lord Shiva which is the largest and tallest of all India temples with its vimana towering to a height of nearly 200 feet over the Garbhagriha with Pyramidal body in thirteen tiers. It was the seat of Chola government in the 9th century A.D. and later of an independent kingdom after the fall of ther Vijayanagar Empire. Weight of the cap 80 tonnes. Conceived on a gigantic scale. Stone relief as minute as that of jewelers.

104. THANESWAR near Kurukshetra, to the north of Delhi in the province of Haryana, was the capital of the Pushyabhuti dynsty. The kingdom of thanesar emerged into a powerful state under Harsha’s (606-647 A.D.) father, Prabhakarvardhan who was in constant warfare against the Huns on the frontier and with the rulers of Malwa. Harsha shifted his capital from Thaneswar to Kannauj. According to Heun-Tsang the people of this city were specially inclined to trade. Thus thanesar was a principal center of trade. It was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1014 A.D. it is here that ahmad Shah Abdali first defeated the Maratha army in 1759 boding to the Maratha collapse at Panipat in 1761.

105. UJJAIN in Madhya pradesh was the capital of Avanti (6th century B.C.) and Chandragupta II, and was one of the provincial capitals of the Mauryas. It was the modal point of two ancient trade routes, one from Kausambui and the other from Mathura, its chief exports being agate, jasper and carnelian. It has an observatory built by Maharaja Savai Jai Sing II (1686-1743).

106. URAIYUR also known as Aragaru,on the river Kavari, was for some time the Sangam chola capital, was famous for its pearls and muslin, the latter being as think as the slough of the snake.

107. UTTARMERUR is a village of Tamil Nadu where nearly two hundred inscriptions belonging to Pallava and Chola periods indicating the nature and working of the village administration have been found. According to Uttarmerur inscriptions Pallava and Chola villages enjoyed maximum of autonomy inadministrative matters with popular village assemblies like the Ur, Sabha, Mahasabha or Nagaram looking after the village affains without any interference from royal officers. The village of Uttarmerur was divided in thirty wards.

108. VATSGULMA modern Basim in the Ahoka district in the South of Ajanta, was the capital of a Junior branch of the Vakatakas who are mentioned in the Ajanta cave inscriptiona No. XVI.

109. VIDISA modern Besnagar, near Bhilsa, in East Malwa, was a part of Sunga empire with Agnimitra, the sone of Pushyamitra Sunga as viceroy. The Vidisa guild of ivory worker was famous for these workers carved the stone sculpture on the gateways and railings surrounding the Sanchi Stupa. It indicates commercial prosperity. It was also famous for the Garuda Pillar Inscription which testified its erection by a Greak ambassabor named Heliodorus in honour of Vasudeva Krishna, the god of the Bhagavatas.

110. VAISHALI indentified with modern Basali in Muzaffarpur district of Bihar, was apulent and prosperous town in the Buddhist period. The second Buddhist Councial was held here. It served as the capital of lichchavis. Later, Ajatsatru annexed it to this kingdom. Ambapali, the famous charming courtesan, lived here and hosted to the Buddha at one time and later she became a convert to Buddhism.

111. VENGI (in Andhra Pradesh) one of the south Indian kingdoms probably joined the Sangha conquered by Samudragupta. It was the capital of the eastern Chalukyas, and was disputed between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.